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Tuesday, November 9, 2010

Peranti Output













Peranti output ialah mana-mana kelengkapan perkakasan komputer yang digunakan untuk menyampaikan hasil pemprosesan data yang dilakukan oleh sistem pemprosesan maklumat (seperti komputer) kepada dunia luar, manakala input/output (I/O) merujuk kepada komunikasi tersebut. Sebaliknya, output ialah syarat atau data yang dihantar oleh sistem ke luar, berbeza dengan input yang merupakan isyarat atau data yang dihantar kepada sistem.
Peranti output yang paling biasa digunakan ialah monitor, pencetak dan pembesar suara.
[sunting] Lihat juga
Antara muka pengguna grafik
Grafik komputer
Grafik vektor lwn. Grafik raster
Kad grafik
Kawalan berangka
Pemprosean imej digital
Pemprototaipan pantas
Reka bentuk terbantu komputer (CAD)
Unit pemprosesan grafik


[sembunyi]
pbsPerkakasan komputer
Komputer
Papan induk
Unit pemprosesan pusat (CPU) • Ingatan capaian rawak (RAM) • Ingatan baca sahaja (ROM) • BIOSPCIPCI ExpressUSBHyperTransportCSIAGPISAEISAVLBPapan induk
Pengawal storan
IDESATARAIDSCSICD-ROMCD-RWDVD-ROMDVD-RDVD-RAMDVD-RWBD-ROMPerakam BD
Pengawal video/bunyi
Kad videoKad grafikKad bunyi
Pengawal bas
Port selariPort bersiriUSBFireWire
Pengawal lain
Pendinginan komputer
Media
CDDVDBDCakera liutCakera kerasHD DVDPemacu kilat USBKad ingatanPemacu ZipPemacu pitaIngatan kilat
Rangkaian
ModemKad antara muka rangkaianBilik pelayanLadang pelayan
Peranti masukkan
Papan kekunciTetikusBebola jejakKayu riaPengimbas
Peranti keluaran
MonitorPencetak
Perkakasan lain
KipasBekalan kuasaKad penala TVUPS

Peranti Input




Peranti input (peranti masukan) ialah mana-mana perkakasan komputer persisian yang memberikan data dan isyarat arahan kepada sistem pemprosesan maklumat (seperti komputer). Antara contoh-contoh peranti input adalah seperti di bawah:
Papan kekunci (teks)
Peranti penuding
Tetikus
Bebola jejak (trackball)
Peranti permainan
Kayu ria
Pad ria (joypad)
Pengawal permainan lain
Peranti input imej, video
Pengimbas
Webcam
Peranti input audio
Mikrofon
Skrin sentuh
Lihat juga
Peranti paparan
Peranti keluaran
[sembunyi]
pbsPerkakasan komputer
Komputer
Papan induk
Unit pemprosesan pusat (CPU) • Ingatan capaian rawak (RAM) • Ingatan baca sahaja (ROM) • BIOSPCIPCI ExpressUSBHyperTransportCSIAGPISAEISAVLBPapan induk
Pengawal storan
IDESATARAIDSCSICD-ROMCD-RWDVD-ROMDVD-RDVD-RAMDVD-RWBD-ROMPerakam BD
Pengawal video/bunyi
Kad videoKad grafikKad bunyi
Pengawal bas
Port selariPort bersiriUSBFireWire
Pengawal lain
Pendinginan komputer
Media
CDDVDBDCakera liutCakera kerasHD DVDPemacu kilat USBKad ingatanPemacu ZipPemacu pitaIngatan kilat
Rangkaian
ModemKad antara muka rangkaianBilik pelayanLadang pelayan
Peranti masukkan
Papan kekunciTetikusBebola jejakKayu riaPengimbas
Peranti keluaran
MonitorPencetak
Perkakasan lain
KipasBekalan kuasaKad penala TVUPS

Monday, November 8, 2010

pErNaG cYbEr

Dikomando Jaringan Perang Angkatan Laut AS, ancaman terbesar terhadap jaringan komputer AS berasal dari hacker China. Menurut laporan dari Federal Computer Week (FCW), hacker China "terus-menerus melancarkan perang habis-habisan terhadap jaringan Departemen Pertahanan."
Masalah ini mulai menjadi berita utama pada 12 Januari ketika Google memuat pada blog resminya bahwa mereka mendeteksi "serangan sangat canggih dan bertarget" yang berasal dari China yang mencuri kekayaan intelektual. Penyelidikan lebih lanjut menemukan bahwa serangan juga menargetkan sedikitnya 20 perusahaan besar lainnya dan juga akun e-mail Google dari aktivis HAM China.
Pengumuman mengakibatkan respons internasional, dan Menlu AS Hillary Clinton mendesak China untuk menyelidiki serangan tersebut. Namun, AS telah menyadari akan kegiatan cyberwarfare China selama beberapa tahun.
Hans Remberg, wakil president dari intelijen domestik Republik Federal Jerman, menuduh China yang mensponsori serangan komputer "hampir setiap hari."
Menurut laporan Departemen Pertahanan AS kepada Kongres, Remberg mengatakan bahwa, "Di seluruh dunia RRC (Republik Rakyat China) secara intensif mengumpulkan data politik, militer, perusahaan-strategis, dan informasi ilmiah dalam rangka mengatasi kesenjangan teknologi China secepat mungkin."
Laporan Departemen Keamanan menambahkan bahwa serangan dari China memiliki tingkat kecanggihan yang lebih tinggi dan terorganisasi daripada hacker dari negara lain, dan "konflik telah mencapai tingkat serangan habis-habisan."
"Mereka akan memanfaatkan apa pun dan segalanya," kata seorang pejabat senior memberitahu FCW dalam laporannya. "Sulit untuk dipercaya kalau itu tidak dikendalikan pemerintah."
Serangan memiliki berbagai tujuan, termasuk mencuri teknologi, pengumpulan intelijen, dan mencuri informasi dari Departemen Keamanan.
Ancaman utama dalam serangan cyber China, selain untuk mencuri informasi tingkat tinggi militer AS informasi dan operasinya, adalah bahwa mereka juga menanam virus tidur yang dapat diaktifkan di lain waktu.
"Sebuah laporan militer China menyatakan bahwa China berencana untuk dapat memenangkan sebuah 'perang informasi' pada pertengahan abad ini," kata laporan FCW.
Sebuah Strategi yang lebih luas
Partai Komunis China (PKC) telah berulang kali membantah tuduhan serangan cyber terhadap AS, negara-negara lain, dan pebisnis, sering menyebut tuduhan rasis atau melawan China. Setelah serangan baru-baru ini di Google, sebuah pernyataan yang diterbitkan oleh juru bicara dari Departemen Perindustrian dan Teknologi Informasi China mengatakan tuduhan "tidak berdasar dan bertujuan untuk merendahkan China."
Sebagian dari kekuatiran adalah kurangnya transparansi dalam pembangunan kemampuan perang cyber dan teknologi rezim China. Ini sejalan dengan kurangnya transparansi rezim dalam pengeluaran militer dan pembangunan secara keseluruhan.
"China terus mengumumkan angka-angka pengeluaran pertahanan tidak lengkap, dan bertindak tidak konsisten dengan kebijakan yang dikeluarkan," menurut Laporan Tahunan Departemen Keamanan kepada Kongres pada "Kekuatan Militer RRC pada tahun 2008."
Sebuah dokumen dari Tentara Pembebasan Rakyat China (PLA) menyatakan bahwa "perang tidak hanya perjuangan militer, tetapi juga kontes komprehensif di bidang politik, ekonomi, diplomasi, dan hukum," menurut laporan Departemen Keamanan.
Itu menambahkan bahwa pada tahun 2003, Komite Sentral PKC menyetujui "Tiga Perang" yang mencakup perang psikologis melalui penggunaan propaganda, penipuan, ancaman, dan paksaan untuk mempengaruhi pemahaman musuh. Perang media bertujuan untuk mempengaruhi opini publik dan memperoleh dukungan domestik dan internasional, dan perang hukum menggunakan hukum internasional dan domestik untuk mendapatkan dukungan dan mengatur dampak akibat dari tindakan-tindakan militer rejim.
Cyberwarfare memiliki tempat yang kuat di keseluruhan strategi militer PKC dan "telah menjadi pilar strategi militer China sejak awal 1990-an," menurut laporan dari analis intelijen senior di SRA International Brian Mazanec.
PKC dikembangkan berdasarkan pada konsep bahwa perang masa depan tergantung pada mengganggu arus informasi musuh. "Jadi, pada manifesto 1999 mereka, Perang tak Terbatas, Kolonel Tentara Pembebasan Rakyat (PLA) Qiao Liang dan Wang Xiangsui mengusulkan bentuk peperangan yang 'melampaui semua bentuk dan batas-batas,' dan memanfaatkan peran sentral bahwa dunia maya berpengaruh dalam konflik di masa depan," kata Mazanec.
"Ancaman cyberwarfare dari RRC nyata dan berkembang. AS tidak bisa mengabaikan ancaman asimetris yang menjulang dari pesaing di Asia," menurut Mazanec.
ia menambahkan bahwa perang dunia maya PKC mampu "tidak hanya difokuskan pada pengumpulan informasi sensitif, tapi juga untuk mencapai efek militer mampu menyebabkan kerugian ekonomi, merusak infrastruktur vital dan mempengaruhi hasil dari konflik bersenjata konvensional." (EpochTimes/ray)

JeNaYaH cYbEr






Jenayah siber meningkat di Malaysia JENAYAH siber dan pencabulan keselamatan Internet di Malaysia meningkat dalam lima tahun lalu dengan purata sebanyak 500 kes dilaporkan setiap tahun, kata Kementerian Tenaga, Komunikasi dan Multimedia baru-baru ini. NSTP emedia/Berita Harian Online melaporkan timbalan menterinya, Datuk Tan Chai Ho, berkata dari Ogos 1997 hingga Julai 2002, Malaysia mengalami 3,050 kes terkumpul jenayah berkaitan Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi (ICT). Menurut beliau, bilangan kes yang dilaporkan sebanyak 503 pada tahun 2000 telah meningkat kepada 923 kes pada 2001, dengan sebanyak 14 individu telah disabitkan mengikut undang-undang siber pada 2000 dan 10 pada tahun lalu. Katanya lagi, antara Ogos hingga Disember 1997, sebanyak 115 kes dilaporkan terdiri daripada pemalsuan komputer, serangan virus, gangguan, pencerobohan, pemusnahan melalui mel, mel tidak diundang dan ancaman pencerobohan komputer. Pada 1998, terdapat 342 kes, 1999 (728 kes), 2000 (503 kes), 2001 (932 kes) dan bagi enam bulan pertama tahun ini, angkanya berjumlah 430 kes. oleh setancity... evill of city

Sunday, November 7, 2010

bUs ToPoLoGy


Bus Topology
From the name of the network itself many inferences of the network can be derived. A bus topology in more technical terms means that it is a method of transmission on networks that uses a common vehicle for transmissions and thus it is categorized as shared communication. Imagine a bus picking up various people from one stop and dropping of people as it travels and then picking a few more. That is what happens in a bus network exactly. However in a Bus topology only one device is allowed to transmit at a given point of time. The DAP or the Distribute Access Protocol has the information about which station has to transmit the data. The data that is being transmitted have frames that will have the source name and the network address.
Bus Topology Functionality
The bus topology connects each computer on the network into something called the segment trunk. A bus is usually referred to a cable that connects end to end and this is used to transmit the signals from one end to the other end. At every end a terminator is placed so that it understands in which direction the data is traveling and also the terminator is used to absorb the signals. If the terminator does not absorb the signal then the same signal is reflected back to the bus confusing the whole data flow. The bus is considered to be a passive network because the computers are largely dependant on the signal that is being transmitted.
Bus Topology Advantages
The advantage of the Bus network is that if one computer fails in the network the others are still not affected and they continue to work. Bus network is very simple and easy to set up. If there is an urgent need to set up a network and perhaps be used on a short term basis then the Bus network is the best possibility. Bus networks use the least amount of cable to set up making it cost effective.
Bus Topology Limitations

In the bus network you will need a network connection in order to determine if the data is being transferred between two nodes. If the data transfer rate is high then the Bus network does not perform very well because the data travels in a stream and cannot be overloaded. The bus network is a bit challenging when you have to troubleshoot the problems. Bus networks are not suitable as large networks as there are limitations to the number of nodes you can set up for one single cable. As the number of computers increase in the network the data transfer rate goes down accordingly and noticeably.
Bus Topology Conclusion
The bus networks in spite of its limitations is considered to be the easiest and the fastest network that can be set up compared to the other kinds of network. In bus networks there is a collision handling system which ensures that data travels without errors and data is delivered correctly.

RInG tOpOlOgY


Ring Topology
updated Nov 9, 2008 7:53 am 33,071 views
A ring topology is a network topology or circuit arrangement in which each network device is attached along the same signal path to two other devices, forming a path in the shape of a ring. Each device in the network that is also referred to as node handles every message that flows through the ring. Each node in the ring has a unique address. Since in a ring topology there is only one pathway between any two nodes, ring networks are generally disrupted by the failure of a single link.
The redundant topologies are used to eliminate network downtime caused by a single point of failure. All networks need redundancy for enhanced reliability. Network reliability is achieved through reliable equipment and network designs that are tolerant to failures and faults. The FDDI networks overcome the disruption in the network by sending data on a clockwise and a counterclockwise ring. In case there is a break in data flow,the data is wrapped back onto the complementary ring before it reaches the end of the cable thereby maintaining a path to every node within the complementary ring.
The most well known example of a ring topology is Token Ring.

[edit]Advantages
An orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit
Under heavy network load performs better than a start topology.
To manage the connectivity between the computers it doesnt need network server.

[edit]Disadvantages
One malfunctioning workstation can throw away the entire network.
Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the entire network .
It is slower than an Ethernet network.

sTaR tOpOlOgY


Star Topology
Star Topology is the most common type of network topology that is used in homes and offices. In the Star Topology there is a central connection point called the hub which is a computer hub or sometimes just a switch. In a Star Network the best advantage is when there is a failure in cable then only one computer might get affected and not the entire network.
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The Star Network Topology typically needs more cable to be networked than the usual Bus topology. A common cable that is used in Star Network is the UTP or the unshielded twisted pair cable. Another common cable that is used in star networks is the RJ45 or the Ethernet cables.
In a Star Network the entire network is dependant on the hub so if the entire network is not working then there could be a problem with the hub. This feature makes it easy to troubleshoot by offering a single point for error connection ad at the same time the dependency is also very high on that single point.
Star Topology Advantages
• A Star Network Topology is very easy to manage because of its simplicity in functionality.• The problems can be easily located logically in a Star Topology and therefore is easy to troubleshoot also.• The Star Topology is very simple in format so it is very easy to expand on the Star Topology.
Star Topology Disadvantages
• The Star Topology is fully dependant on the hub and the entire working of the network depends on the hub or the switch.• If there are many nodes and the cable is long then the network may slow down.
Since all the computers on the network have independent control of their networks and only dependant on the central hub computer, the failures in transmission and other possible problems in this area are less likely. Also if the hub is safe then every computer in the network is safe. This type of network also offers more privacy than any other network.
All the computers in the network are communicating with one main centrally located computer and there is no peer to peer coordination. If the peer to peer coordination takes place it is routed through the central hub. This way the privacy of each and every computer on the network is maintained.
If one computer fails in the network it does not affect any other computer in the network and the tasks of this computer can be easily switched very to the next computer easily using the hub controls. In a Star Network Topology it is possible to have all the important data back ups on the hub in a private folder and this way if the computer fails you can still use your data using the next computer in the network and accessing the backup files on the hub.
New devices or nodes can easily be added to the Star Network by just extending a cable from the hub. Since the hub controls everything the addition or removal of devices are done using g the hub. If the hub adds a device for example a printer or a fax machine, all the other computers on the network can access the new device by simply accessing the hub. The device need not be installed on all the computers in the network. The central function is cost effective and easier to maintain
Star Topology Conclusion
A Star Network Topology is best suited for smaller networks and works efficiently when there is limited number of nodes. One has to ensure that the hub or the central node is always working and extra security features should be added to the hub because it s the heart of the network.

Sunday, October 31, 2010

Karnival ict Sabak Bernam 2010

Tarikh : 29-31 Oktober 2010
Tempat : Dewan Sri Bernam,45300 Sungai Besar
Masa : 8.30 pagi - 10.00 malam

Anjuran : Suruhanjaya Komunikasi Dan Multimedia Malaysia (SKMM)
: PPD Sabak Bernam
: PKG Daerah Sabak Bernam

Di lampirkan Tentatif Program bagi Karnival ICT Sabak Bernam 2010 sepanjang 3 hari dari 29-31 Oktober 2010


Tarikh
Masa
Aktiviti
Penyertaan
29.10.2010
(Jumaat)

8.30 pagi – 10.00 malam
Pameran dan jualan
Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung

10.00 pagi
Perasmian
Pengetua, Guru Besar, Guru Media dan Guru Penyelaras Makmal Komputer.
9.00 pagi – 11.00 pagi
Pendaftaran

Penghakiman Pertandingan -

Persembahan Interaktif Multimedia (P&P)

Blog

Klip Video

Roket

PC Assamble

Sekolah Menengah dan Sekolah Rendah

3.00 petang – 6.00 petang
Mini Cyber Fusion
Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung

8.00 malam – 10.00 malam
Cabutan Bertuah
Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung

30.10.2010
(Sabtu)
8.30 pagi - 10.00 malam
Pameran dan jualan
Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung
9.00 pagi – 2.00 petang
Pertandingan -

Explorace ICT



Melukis



Mewarna


Mini Cyber Fusion


Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung


Sekolah Menengah dan Sekolah Rendah

Pra Sekolah


Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung
3.00 petang – 6.00 petang
Mini Cyber Fusion
Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung
8.00 malam – 10.00 malam
Mini Cyber Fusion



Cabutan Bertuah

Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung

Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung

31.10.2010
(Ahad)
8.30 pagi – 5.00 petang
Pameran dan jualan bermula
Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung
9.00 pagi – 2.00 petang

Final Battle Mini Cyber Fusion


Cabutan Bertuah


Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung


Terbuka kepada pelajar dan umum serta pengunjung
3.30 petang
Penyampaian Hadiah

4.30 petang
Persembahan tayangan video klip blog dan persembahan interaktif

5.00 petang
Bersurai

Tuesday, June 29, 2010

differences between internet,intranet and extranet

internet is a network which is for public, world where intranet and extranet is a network for private use,
internet is a network where anybody can access, from around the world, but in intranet and extranet we add some privacy so only allowed people can access.

there is no need for example of internet, hope u know!!
lets give an example of intranet and extranet.
we sometimes login some websites which requires our details to login, such as bank to view our bank statement, isp, university, so here we r connecting to extranet, bank allow us to access their internal network. In intranet internal users are allowed to use, such staff of bank, isp or other company which allowed their internal staff to use their network and no outsiders allowed in this case.
hope it is alright!

Monday, June 28, 2010

Perbandingan antara topologi bus,ring,star

Topolgi bus

Tpologi jaringan bus meruapakan beberapa simpul/node dihubungkan dg jalur data (bus).topolgi ini menyediakan 1 saluran untuk komunikasisemua perangkat shgg setiap perangkat harus bergantian seluran tersebut.hanya ada 2perangkat yg saling berkomunikasi dalam 1 saat.tiap node dapat melakukan tugas-tugas dan operasi yg berbeda.Untuk mengifisiensi penggunaan jaringan digunukan metode CSMA/CD(Carrier Sense Multiplay Access/Collision Detected)yg mernguragi masa tenggang(saluran kosong)dg mendeteksi tabrakan informasi.
Keuntungan Topolgi Bus
1.Mengurangi kabel&jarak LAN tidak terbatas.
2.Biaya instalasi sgt murah.
3.Mudah untuk menambah atau mengurangkan kompuer &nod
Kekurangan Topologi Bus
1.Memerlukan terminator untuk kedua ujng kabel tulang belakang
2.Perlu pengulang (repeater0jika LAN jauh.
3.Jika kabel tulabg belakang (backbone)/mana-mana nodnya bermasalah rangkaian tidak dapat berfungsi.
Topologi Ring
Mempunyai satu titik kesalahan,terletak pd hub.jika pusat hub mengalami kegagalan,maka seluruh jaringan akan gagal beroperasi.Memerlukan alat pd central poin untuk membroadcast ulang atau pergantian traffic jaringan (switch network rraffic).Penempatan kabel yg diguib\nakan ring menggunakan desain yg sederhanh,pada topologi ring,setiap computer yg pertama.
Keuntungan Topologi Ring
1.Setiap computer hak akses yg sama terhadap token,sehingga tidak akan ada computer yg memonopoli jaringan.
2.Data yg mengalir dalam satu arah sehingga terjadinya collision dapat dihindarkan.
Kekurangan Topolgi ring
1.Apabila ada satu computer dlm ring yg gagal berfungsi,maka akan mempengaruhi keseluruhan jaringan.
2.Sulit mengatsi kerusakan di jaringan yg menggunakan topolgo ring.
3Menambah atau menguirangikomputer akan mengacaukaun jaringan.
Topologi Star
Dalam topologi star,semua kabel di hubungkan dr computer-computer ke lokasi pusat(central location),dimana semuanya rehubung ke suatu alat yg dinamakan hub
Keuntungan Topologi star
Cukup mudah untuk mengubah dan menambah computer kedalam jaringan yg menggunakan topologi star tanpa mengganggu aktivitas jaringan yg sedang berkangsung.Pusat dari jaringan star merupakan tempat yg baik untuk menentukan diagnosa kesalahan yg terjadi dalam jaringan.Kita dapat memakai beberapa tipe kabel didalam jaringan yg sama dg hub yg dapat mengakomodasi tipe kabel yg berbeda
Kekurangan Topologi star
Memepunyai satu titik kesalahan,terletak pd hub.Jika hub pusat mengalami kegagalan,maka seluruh jaringan akan gagal beroperasi.memerlukan alat pd central poin untuk membroadcast ulang ppergantian traffic jaringan (switch network traffic).
Topologi Mesh
Topologi Mesh adalah suatu bentuk hubungan antar perangkat,dimana perangkat terhubung secara langsung ke perangkat lainya yg ada didalam jaringan.Akibatnya,dalam topologi ini setiap perangkat dapat berlomunikasi langsung dgn parangkat yg dituju(dedicated links)
Keuntungan Topologi Mesh
Memiliki sifat Robust,yaitu apabila terjadi gangguan pada koneksi computer A dgn computer B karena ruasaknya kabel koneksi(links).Memudahkan proses identifikasi permasakahan pd saat terjadi kerusakan koneksi pd computer.
Kekurangan Topologi Mesh
Membutuhkan banyak kabel dan Port I/o.Semakin banyk computer didalam topologi mesh mk di[erlukan semakin banyak kabel links dan port I/O.Hal tersebut sekaligus jg mengindisikasikan bahwa topologi jenis ini membutuhkan biaya yg relative mahal.Karena setiap computer harus terkoneksi secara langsung dgn computer kainya mk instalasi dan konfigurasi menjadi sulit.

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Wednesday, May 5, 2010

FUNCTION OF OS

The main functions of an OS include:

In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and how much time should be allowed for each application before giving another application a turn.
It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.
It handles and monitors input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks, printers, and dial-up ports. [8]
It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.
It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs (for example, printing) so that the initiating application is freed from this work.
On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage how to divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time.
Scheduling the activities of the CPU and resources to achieve efficiency and prevention of deadlock. [9]

View additional jobs done by the OS

All major computer platforms (hardware and software) require and sometimes include an operating system. Linux, Windows 2000, VMS, OS/400, AIX, and z/OS are all examples of operating systems.

OPERATING SYSTEM


An operating system is the software on a computer that manages the way different programs use itshardware, and regulates the ways that a user controls the computer.[1][2] Operating systems are found on almost any device that contains a computer with multiple programs—from cellular phones and video game consoles to supercomputers and web servers. Some popular modern operating systems for personal computers include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux[3] (see also: list of operating systems,comparison of operating systems).

Because early computers were often built for only a single task, operating systems did not exist in their proper form until the 1960s.[4] As computers evolved into being devices that could run different programs in succession, programmers began putting libraries of common programs (in the form of computer code) onto the computer in order to avoid duplication and speed up the process. Eventually, computers began being built to automatically switch from one task to the next. The creation of runtime libraries to manage processing and printing speed came next, which evolved into programs that could interpret different types of programming languages into machine code. When personal computers by companies such as Apple Inc., Atari, IBM andAmiga became popular in the 1980s, vendors began adding features such as software scheduling and hardware maintenance.

An operating system can be divided into many different parts. One of the most important parts is the kernel, which controls low-level processes that the average user usually cannot see: it controls how memory is read and written, the order in which processes are executed, how information is received and sent by devices like the monitor, keyboard and mouse, and deciding how to interpret information received by networks. The user interface is the part of the operating system that interacts with the computer user directly, allowing them to control and use programs. The user interface may be graphical with icons and a desktop, or textual, with a command line. Another similar feature is an Application programming interface, which is a set of services and code libraries that let applications interact with one another, as well as the operating system itself. Depending on the operating system, many of these components may not be considered an actual part. For example, Windows considers its user interface to be part of the operating system, while many versions of Linux do not.